Odyssey :: essays research papers

1. Does the Odysseus of these books seem different in character from the Odysseus of Books V – XII? If so, why? In the books 5 to 12 Odysseus’ character does not really undergo any transitions from one facet to another. Odysseus still carries the same attributes and traits right through to the end of the story. It is, however, evident in book 22, when Odysseus takes his revenge upon the suitors, that we see a totally different side to Odysseus’ character. Both these two points will be addressed in this answer. At the beginning of the Epic, Odysseus is presented as a very brave and heroic man who often thinks about his home, wife and son. He is a character that loves story telling, which also includes lying with the greatest of ease. Odysseus â€Å"the man of many resources† never changes in his ways throughout the rest of the Epic, as he remains constant to all his former attributes. In this way it is obvious that Odysseus is a very stable hero who acts and thinks in the same manner always, much like any human. However, there is a twist to this debate, as in Book 22 when he fights the suitors and prevails we do see a very different side to the character of Odysseus. In this book, Homer presents Odysseus to us as a very ruthless and un-forgiving character one who has everything set on destroying all he can. Odysseus could basically be described as heartless. We see this in particular when Odysseus â€Å"stuck Leodes full in the neck.† Leodes had submitted to Odysseus yet he was blessed with no hope of recognition as Odysseus had already decided upon the suitor’s fate. This is quite a change in the way that Odysseus is portrayed in all the other

Judgement in “Sonny’s Blues” and “Cathredral

The short story â€Å"Sonny’s Blues† written By James Baldwin is a story of two brothers who come to understand each other. The story begins and takes place in Harlem, New York City, where the narrator, whose name isn’t mentioned at all in the literature, is a teacher at a local high school, as he is on his way to work then reads on a newspaper that his younger brother, Sonny, who he hasn’t seen or spoke to in a while, has been arrested for possession and use of heroin.Throughout the story, he depicts Sonny as this troubled some young man, who never had any sense of direction towards what he wanted to do with his life or what he wanted to become. He viewed him as a product of the system, because as children growing up; Harlem, was basically a dark whole, full of malice, drugs, and corruption. After his short stint in jail, the narrator then welcomes his younger brother to stay with him and his wife for the time being. While Sonny’s stay at his older brother’s house, he then explains to him his constant struggles in life and why everything was so different for him as he was growing up.He tells him that no one ever really listened to what he wanted to pursue in life, and how he wanted to be this Jazz musician, but everyone just believed it was a phase. The narrator still didn’t really understand where Sonny was coming from. Until Sonny, one night invited him over to a local jazz bar, where everyone knows and respects him, to go watch him and his buddies play some music. It is then, as Sonny and the band is on stage, he begins to watch his younger brother struggle with the music.He watches his entire brother’s struggles come pouring out as he plays, and then he finally realizes who Sonny is and what he’s made of. In the short story, â€Å"Cathedral† written by Raymond Carver, similar to â€Å"Sonny’s Blues† the narrator of the story’s name isn’t given. The setting tak es place in Connecticut, where the death of a blind man’s wife, gets him to visit an old employee of his. The narrator who is the husband of the woman who use to work for the blind man, isn’t fond of him staying at their house.As the story moves along, the reader can see how the husband is ignorant, in the fact that he frequently keeps stating to himself how he doesn’t understand how someone can fall in love with a person who is blind, until after eating supper and his wife went off upstairs to get dressed. They both sit in the living room, and the husband invites Robert to smoke a joint. While flicking through channels, they finally leave something, they are willing to bare. It’s a show on different types of cathedrals around the world. The husband then asks Robert, if he has any idea or imagination of what an actual cathedral looks like.Robert says no, and he wants the husband to explain. The narrator has a life-changing moment, while trying to tell Rob ert what a cathedral looks like. The narrator, as he first trying to explain what the cathedral looks like, struggles for the words. However, upon Robert’s encouragement, the narrator loosens up, when the blind man asks him to go grab a piece of paper and pen so they can both draw this cathedral together. This is a close personal connection and intimate moment of communication for the narrator, and it impacts him greatly.The narrator is able to connect with Robert, and this is the moment where the narrator can put aside his insecurities and actually interact with someone else. People always have different views on different people, places or things. In my opinion I believe everyone should be open to meeting new people, giving people chances, or even be more open minded to different situations, because you can learn a lot from something or somebody else. For example the understanding of the older brother towards Sonny’s struggles in â€Å"Sonny’s Blues† an d the connection the narrator in â€Å"Cathedral† had with the blind man.

Modernist Architecture During The 19th Century - 1459 Words

Modernist architecture emerged in the late 19th century, as a response to rapid changes in technology which created new perceptions of time and space. Some of the features of modern architecture included the extensive use of modern materials like glass and steel, the rejection of history and a simplification of forms by the reduction of ornament. One of the first modernist architects was Louis Sullivan, who coined the phrase ‘Form Follows Function’. To Sullivan this meant the elimination of ornament so that the architecture was an expression of purpose, designing buildings inside out allowing the structure to dictate the form and appearance. Sullivan influenced many architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright and Adolf Loos, who were also pioneers of modernist architecture. Loos in particular was against excessive ornament and his text Ornament and Crime (1898) became significant for the modern movement. Although Loos’ minimalist style deferred from most of his contemporaries, particularly those of the Viennese Succession, he shared similar ideas with Charles Rene Mackintosh regarding ornament. Subsequently Loos went on to influence numerous architects, one of them being Le Corbusier. Loos being the common thread, I will examine his Goldman Salatsch Building (1909) comparing it to Sullivan’s Wainwright Building (1890), Mackintosh’s Glasgow School of Art (1897–1909) and Le Corbusier’s Villa Jeanneret and Villa La Roche (1923). Each architect shared the same philosophiesShow MoreRelatedThe Modernism Movement Essay1133 Words   |  5 PagesModernism started as a movement around late 19th and 20th centuries. It rejected the conventional forms of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, social organisation and everyday life as they felt it was incompatible with the new economical, social and political conditions that was emerging at that period of time. Many distinctive styles can be defined as modernist, but majority of them had very similar values and theories on different aspects of society. It gave birth to a whole array ofRead MoreDifferences Between Modernism And Postmodernism1576 Words   |  7 PagesPost-modern Architectures movement in the 20th century’s, and found inspiration in the movements and the way the two movements has made a massi ve impact in the world of Architecture world Modernism Looking into the modern Architecture movement I found out that, Modernism is the single most important new style or philosophy of architecture and design of the 20th century, associatedRead MoreModernism And Its Impact On Art And Architecture Throughout The Twentieth Century2528 Words   |  11 Pagesnineteenth century and was mostly noticeable in art and architecture throughout the twentieth century, also having a large influence on typography and graphic design methods. It changed both these ways of communication by creating a more clean-cut and distinct typeface, which would later be utilised worldwide. The term ‘Modernism’ emerged particularly as a result of large-scale changes to artistic and societal aspects due to the rise of industrialisation during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. ArtistsRead MoreNational Identity- A Semse of a N ation as a Cohesive Whole Essay1273 Words   |  6 Pagesculture, and language1 The architecture of the Twentieth century has been shaped by powerful social, economic and political forces. This has stemmed from influence of war, diverse political regimes, national and international architectural movements and technological development. Along with this architects and ideas has been able to travel around the world more than ever before and from this designs have become apparent that sought to break with the past. Architecture that was once specific andRead MoreThe First World War And The Reconstruction Of Britain2496 Words   |  10 Pagesbrutalist buildings during the 1950s and 1960s. By exploring historical and contextual factors, this essay will discuss what technological advancements occurred and contributed towards the birth of Brutalism. Within this essay there will be discussion about the way the Second World War and the reconstruction of Britain changed the direction of British architecture and which architects were most influential in this redevelopment process. Furthermore, it will explore the Modernist movement by evaluatingRead MoreAn Essay on Modernism2160 Words   |  9 Pagesthat were produced during the modernist period. There has been a lot of controversy about when modernism started, yet many believe it initiated sometime in the late 19th century and continued to the early 20th century. The modernist movement was meant to be a break from traditions and it was set up to se parate the value of certain works from the conservative realism. For instance, Unlike the traditional art that was aesthetic, this movement was more about space and form. In modernist design, shape andRead MoreModernism And Postmodernism1207 Words   |  5 Pagesprimary beliefs of the Modernist genres that appeal in someway or the other to the various movements and also the writers. Modernism in general can broadly be described as the â€Å"deviation from the ancient and classic manner†. (Johnson, J., The New Royal and Universal English Dictionary, Millard, 1763). It is the radical movement away from the past in search of new styles of expression. It refers to a reforming movement away from the traditional forms in various fields like architecture, art, music, andRead MoreEssay on Modernism Brought Much Change into the World1074 Words   |  5 Pages​Modernism or modernist poetry refers to the time period where poems were written by various people between the 1890s and 1970s. Modernism poets have a lot of knowledge and their works reflect it. The Era of modernism brought on modern language as it referred to thought, practice or someone’s character. This brought on a lot of change in the world. The thought behind the thinking of modernist poets were that of individualism. The modern movement came about as the result of the industrial revolut ionRead More Design Trends In Architecture Essay2243 Words   |  9 PagesDesign Trends In Architecture The more things change, the more they stay the same. While art has always been an ever changing form, it has deep roots in traditionalism; whether an artist or designer looks at the art that came before him and is inspired to follow that form, is inspired to do something completely opposite, or sees the flaws which, if corrected, could make that work of art perfect, he is ultimately quite influenced by what came before him. Nowhere is this more evident than inRead MoreThe Rites Of Spring By A Modris Ekstein1527 Words   |  7 PagesThe novel â€Å"The Rites of Spring† is written by a Modris Ekstein is a Latvian author whose family was negatively impacted by the German occupation during the war. This literary work is based on the Ekstein’s claims about modernisms influence in the cause of World War 1. He divides the book into the acts similar to the play in that is the books namesake. Throughout this work, Ekstein argues that the ideology of modernism, which is primarily concerned with â€Å"introspection, death, emancipation, primitivism

Insect Behavior, Communication and Learning

Most insect behavior is genetically programmed, or innate. A caterpillar with no prior experience or instruction can still spin a silken cocoon. But can an insect change its behavior as a result of its experiences? In other words, can insects learn? Insects Use Memories to Change Their Behavior You wont see one graduating from Harvard anytime soon, but indeed, most insects can learn. Smart insects will change their behaviors to reflect their associations with and memories of environmental stimuli. For the simple insect nervous system, learning to ignore repetitive and meaningless stimuli is a fairly easy task. Blow air on a cockroachs rear end, and it will flee. If you continue to blow air on the cockroach over and over, it will eventually conclude that the sudden breeze is no cause for concern, and stay put. This learning, called habituation, helps insects save energy by training them to ignore what is harmless. Otherwise, the poor cockroach would spend all its time running away from the wind. Insects Learn From Their Earliest Experiences Imprinting occurs during a brief period of sensitivity to certain stimuli. Youve probably heard stories of baby ducks falling in line behind a human caretaker, or of nesting sea turtles that return to the beach where they hatched years earlier. Some insects also learn this way. Upon emerging from their pupal cases, ants notice and retain the scent of their colony. Other insects imprint on their first food plant, showing a clear preference for that plant for the remainder of their lives. Insects Can Be Trained   Like Pavlovs dogs, insects can also learn through classical conditioning. An insect exposed repeatedly to two unrelated stimuli will soon associate one with the other. Wasps can be given food rewards each time they detect a certain scent. Once a wasp associates food with the smell, it will continue to go to that scent. Some scientists believe trained wasps may replace bomb and drug sniffing dogs in the near future. Honeybees Memorize Flight Routes and Communicate with Dance Routines A honeybee demonstrates its ability to learn each time it leaves its colony to forage. The bee must memorize patterns of landmarks within its environment to guide it back to the colony. Often, she is following the instructions of a fellow worker, as taught to her through the waggle dance. This memorization of details and events is a form of latent learning.

The Definition Of Organizational Communication - 774 Words

Over the years, the definition of organizational communication has been a highly-debated and complex facet of the scholarship. Researchers have placed a key importance on relationships between people within the organization and how the organization structures itself as a whole. Organizations are communicative, asserting the need of communication to help constitute the organization itself. Organizational communication has been defined as â€Å"the substance of organizing in the sense that through discursive practices organization members engage in the construction of a complex and diverse system of meanings† (Mumby Stohl, 1996, p. 63). This definition allows for the consideration of the essential social institutions that help maintain the key structures of our society. There are many different layers to the definition of organizational communication. Engaged research, use of metaphors, and common problems characterize how one might approach the defining of organizational commu nication. In order to gain insight into these discursive practices, some scholars have turned to practitioners in order to collaborate and expand theory into more relevant applications (e.g., Barge Shockley-Zalabak, 2008). This method is known as engaged scholarship; utilizing a mutual engagement ensures that theoretical concepts such as a working definition are grounded in the reality of organizational processes and members. Working together, knowledge becomes co-produced and thus, the construction ofShow MoreRelatedHistory of Organizational Communication1537 Words   |  7 Pagesof the Field Reflection Paper | What is organizational communication? As a field organizational communication studies exactly what it sounds like the communication in organization. Defining the particulars of this often comes down to the researcher and the perspective that skew their opinions on the field. These subtle differences are why it takes Papa, Daniels and Spiker almost 16 pages to express their definition of their field of study. The organizational experiences of an individual have a hugeRead MoreOrganizational Culture and Structure965 Words   |  4 PagesORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE STRUCTURE Outline Prepared By: Marnela Kathleen V. Pasamba, RN MSN I I. Organizational Culture A. Definitions 1. Gareth Morgan: set of beliefs, values and norms, together with symbols like dramatized events and personalities, that represents the unique character of the organization and provides the context for action in it and by it. 2. Edgar Schein: a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group has learned as it solved its problems that has worked wellRead MoreCommunication: An Integral Component of Organizational Leadership1585 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction The concept of communication is an integral component of organizational leadership (Hackman Johnson, 2009).Pohrte (2010) noted that people in leadership position must learn take the responsibility of discharging effective communication when dealing with other people. In this paper, we perform an in-depth analysis of the communication issues that affect the everyday leadership of our organizations. The importance of communications in leadership A literature review indicates thatRead MoreRelevance of Communication to Management1021 Words   |  5 Pagesthe Relevance of Communication to Management SDM 201222101028 Ghana Christian University College Lecturer: Gabriel Annan Date: 15th April 2013 Word Count: Table of Content Pg. Introduction Definition of Terms Relevance of Communication to management Conclusion Reference Introduction Communication is a vital part of personal life more so important in business and management, and any other situation where people encounter each other. Effective Communication is significant forRead MoreEssay on Organizational Behavior Terminology and Concepts1024 Words   |  5 PagesOrganizational Behavior Terminology and Concepts   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The behavior of employees within any organization is paramount to the success or failure of that organization. The study of organizational behavior is a science with its own vocabulary and terminology. This essay will describe some of the more common key concepts and terminology and relate those to the modern United States Navy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"An organization is, simply, a body of people organized for some specific purpose† (communication, 2005)Read More Organizational Behavior and Its Importance to a Company Essay example741 Words   |  3 PagesOrganizational Behavior and Its Importance to a Company What is organizational behavior and why is it important for a company to understand it? There are several crucial reasons why companies should utilize the concepts of organizational behavior, as well as understand the key terms that are associated with organizational behavior. To understand and utilize organizational behavior there are several key terms that must also be understood, for example organizational culture, diversity, communicationRead MoreOrganizational Structure Of An Effective Organization857 Words   |  4 Pagesbest the communication strategies to send the different messages across the company, the effective process for decision-making and problem-solving. Additionally, we will explore the process for effective management as well as a valid approach of leadership that contribute to achieve excellence in our current complex organization environments. Components of an Effective Organizational Structure The organizational structure in a company has a highly impact in a large number of organizational activitiesRead MoreEssay on Defining Public Relations983 Words   |  4 Pagesconformable and applicable to a vast array of organizational settings and publics. Public Relations professionals cannot possibly commit to being proficient in all areas of required intellectual capacity, and so specialize according to their intrinsic skills. In the following essay, I will attempt to define Public Relations based on my own interpretation of the assigned reading, as well as other outside sources. I will compare and contrast three published definitions of public relations in an attempt to explainRead MoreWhat Is Organisational Commitment And Why It Is Important?1240 Words   |  5 PagesWhat is organisational commitment and why it is important? The adopted definition for this study corresponds with definitions by Meyer and Allen (1991, p 67) (Allen, 1991)mentioned above. According to this definition organisational commitment â€Å"is a psychological state that characterises the employee’s relationship with the organisation, and has implications for the decision to continue membership in the organisation†. The second characteristic that is used to describe the concept organisational commitmentRead MoreEssay Organizational Behavior1057 Words   |  5 PagesOrganizational Behavior Organizational behavior: Organizational behavior refers to the attitudes and behavior of the individuals in the organization. Organizational behavior is a inter-disciplinary field of study that draws from many of the behavioral sciences. The goal of organizational behavior is to apply the concepts from the other behavioral sciences to pressing problems that management may be facing, as well as applying organizational behavior to the administrative theory and practices

The Japanese Culture Free Essays

The Japanese culture in unlike any other in the world. It has long been known for its excellence in education and its strong background of family and religion.The Japanese culture dates back to 10,000 BC with many fascinating periods and events. We will write a custom essay sample on The Japanese Culture or any similar topic only for you Order Now They span from the days of the samurai and shogun, to 1945 when the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. Although a bomb would be a devastating blow for any country, rapid industrialization and aid from the United States brought Japan to the forefront of world affairs. Japan is roughly the size of California with a population of 120 million Japanese, 670,000 Koreans and 130,000 of other nationalities. The capital of Japan is Tokyo and the government is a parliamentary democracy, made up of elected representatives. Chinese culture has about five thousand years history which is an extremely long period of time. The Chinese civilization was growing with these periods of time and it will continues greater than ever and it one of the oldest continuous civilizations in history and dominant cultural center of East Asia is China. Chinese Kung Fu, also known as Chinese martial arts, is an important part of traditional Chinese culture. It is probably one of the earliest and longest lasting sports, which utilizes both brawn and brain3Japan’s economic freedom score is 72.3, making its economy the 30th freest in the 2018 Index. Its overall score has increased by 2.7 points, with dramatic deficit reduction improving the score for fiscal health and far outpacing a decline in government integrity. Japan is ranked 8th among 43 countries in the Asia–Pacific region, and its overall score is above the regional and world averages.The economy of Japan is a highly developed and market-oriented economy. It is the third-largest in the world by nominal GDP and the fourth-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP), and is the world’s second largest developed economy.Japan is a member of the G7. According to the International Monetary Fund, the country’s per capita GDP (PPP) was at $37,519, the 28th highest in 2014, down from the 22nd position in 2012. Due to a volatile currency exchange rate, Japan’s GDP as measured in dollars fluctuates widely. Accounting for these fluctuations through use of the Atlas method, Japan is estimated to have a GDP per capita of around $38,490.China’s economic liberty score is 57.8, making its economy the 110th freest in the 2018 Index. Its overall score has increased by 0.4 point, with developed scores for government honesty and legal effectiveness more than balancing declines in fiscal health, labor freedom, and property rights. China is graded 24th between 43 countries in the Asia–Pacific region, and its overall score is below the regional and world averages.4The low standard of living permits companies in China to pay their workers less than American workers. That makes products cheaper, which lures overseas producers to outsource jobs to China. How to cite The Japanese Culture, Papers

To What Extent Were the Purges Caused by Stalins Paranoia free essay sample

To what extent were the Purges caused by Stalin’s paranoia? Daniel Johnston Stromness Academy SCN: O62114657 Introduction J. Arch Getty says that â€Å"The Great Terror of the 1930s in the Soviet Union was one of the most horrible cases of political violence in modern history†[i] but was this political terror a result of Stalin’s own paranoia or a necessity to maintain control in Soviet Russia? Robert Service argues that â€Å"Nowadays, virtually all writers accept that he [Stalin] initiated the Great Terror†[ii] however historians are careful to acknowledge that Stalin’s paranoia is not the only factor in the creation and continuation of the Purges and the Great Terror. Nevertheless, it can be argued that Stalin’s paranoia did play a vital part. But there are other factors that need to be taken into consideration when referring to the purges that were not linked to Stalin’s paranoia. Most of these factors do link back to Stalin however but not directly because of his paranoia, more his obsession with gaining and maintaining absolute power in Russia. Stalin’s wider personality needs to be considered. In addition, there were economic problems that led to external opposition to the party meaning that strict control was necessary in order to maintain power as a majority of the population did not agree with the implementation of collectivisation and the Five Year Plans in the 1930s. The instability in the cities may also have been a contributing factor as the purges helped quell the violence. The NKVD may have also used the purges to further its own position in Russian society which allowed for the continuation of the purges. It can also be argued that the purges were necessary for the progression of communism. Stalin was obsessed with maintaining his position of power and by purging the party internally he was able to eliminate any potential enemies. The totalitarian view of the purges is that Stalin’s personality was central to the way the purges were carried out and the extent to which they were carried out. However the revisionists take the view that Stalin’s personality and paranoia is not a sufficient enough reason for the cause of the purges. But just how significant are the other factors? Was Stalin’s paranoia the driving force in the creation of the purges, or was Stalin merely pushed by his obsession with power? Words 372 Economic Problems There was a great deal of opposition to Stalin’s economic policies in the 1930s, and it can be argued that this forced Stalin to consider ways in which to combat it. In fact R. Manning asserts that â€Å"The economy of 1936-41 and the Great Purges are inexorably linked†[iii]. Collectivisation and the Five Year Plans created a lot of tension within the general populace. Stalin had to take steps to try and deal with the problems and purged anyone who resisted his ideas. There was a great resistance to and hatred of Collectivisation because the peasantry did not want to have large collective farms controlled by the state so they resisted through various means such as destruction of harvest and grain hording. Due to Collectivisation not being that successful during its first years, Stalin needed to find a scapegoat, someone he could blame. He therefore identified a class of â€Å"Kulaks†, who were apparently holding back the other workers through monopolising the best land and cheapest labour. In reality they were merely peasants who may have bought an extra cow or had a bit more land than some of their neighbours. Stalin claimed that this class had to be broken in order for Russia to continue modernising. Because of this the Kulaks were purged brutally. Alec Nove argues â€Å"What is quite clear is that collectivisation went hand in hand with dekulakisation, and dekulakisation with blind robbery†[iv]. By 1st July 1930 over 320,000 households, which was about 1. 5 million people, had been purged or deported[v]. However the Kulaks were not the only ones to be purged as Alec Nove states â€Å"It is also clear that persons who were not Kulaks at all were arrested and deported†[vi]. Therefore this aspect of the Purges was not due to Stalin’s paranoia but to obsession with making Russia a leading country. The industrial workers also had to be kept in line. Many of the workers and managers complained that the Five Year Plans were unreasonable and would not be achieved. Stalin labelled any resistance to the Five Year Plans â€Å"as sabotage†. A series of public trials took place showing that resistance to industrialisation plans would not be tolerated no matter how skilful you were in your job. However Stalin may have shot himself in the foot as most of these show trials were used against the industrial experts rather than the regular labourers allowing for â€Å"quantity over quality†. Words 407 This is yet another example of how the purges were not entirely due to Stalin’s paranoia as he was, this time reflecting his obsession with protecting Russia from the threat of invasion. Another factor that shows that the purges may have been carried out for economic reasons is the benefits they had for the government, as it was able to provide both scapegoats and a slave workforce. As production levels were levelling off and the Five Year Plans were falling behind schedule Stalin needed to take action to find scapegoats and ways to increase productivity. It can be argued that Stalin made use of the purges to create a slave labour force within the Gulags. This slave workforce allowed Stalin to build large projects and provide a much needed income so that the government could buy in more western technology and build up industry. Corin and Fiehn agree by stating that â€Å"Stalin needed the money that these industries earned from foreign exports to buy in western technology†[vii]. It is a known fact that Stalin enjoyed massive projects, which was sometimes called gigantomania, but these projects would cost a lot to hire workers. So the slave labour force of the gulags could build them, for example the White Sea Canal project and the Palace of the Soviets (which was never built). However it is debatable whether these â€Å"slaves† really produced enough of an income for Stalin to be useful, as many died in harsh conditions and there were others that were not fit to provide a decent amount of labour. It is therefore unlikely that Stalin used the purges simply to gain a slave workforce. Overall the economic issues that faced Russia most definitely forced Stalin and his government to take drastic action. The purges undoubtedly provided Stalin with scapegoats for the problems facing collectivisation and industrialisation. In a way it spurred on the workers and peasants to not complain about the system. Stalin’s need to address these economic problems was one factor that explains the purges. Stalin did play a role in purging the workers and peasants but it was not his paranoia that pushed him to make these decisions, it was his obsession with making Russia great no matter what the cost. Words 374 Problems within the Party There were many problems with the party itself which Stalin recognised and he used the purges as a solution for these problems. The local party branches were thought to be the most corrupt and out of touch with the central government and were readily denounced by their fellow Bolsheviks. These fellow Bolsheviks used the purges to get themselves into new positions with better privileges. Stalin believed that the party had been infiltrated by fascist spies and corrupt officials. J. Arch Getty states â€Å"Members denounced leaders [and each other] for dubious class origins, long forgotten sins and current misdeeds. [viii] He agrees that these fellow Bolsheviks denounced each other for reasons that were not betrayal of the state. It was made clear that no-one was safe from these purges as even Politburo members Zinoviev and Kamenev were put on a public show trial, therefore sending the message that no-one regardless of rank and revolutionary pedigree was safe. The show trials were most definitely driven by Stalin’s paranoia. The third show trial for example consisted of men who had presided over the previous show trials, they were charged with ridiculous offences. It is interesting to note how Yagoda was put on trial as it shows how Stalin o longer trusted those who presided over the first show trials. The show trials also allowed for Stalin to remove any dissent towards his leadership within the party, it allowed him to remove any opposition towards him and to scare the general population as well. Lower level party members were also encouraged to inform on the higher ranking members, this eventually led to a rush of accusations which got out of hand and developed a momentum of it own allowing the purges to continue. This created a party utterly loyal and dedicated to Stalin personally even if over one million party members were purged (a third of the party). Stalin did not only want to stop opposition to the party but to justify to everyone that the terror was necessary to keep Russia safe from enemies both from within and without. This shows why he used show trials to show everyone the consequences of opposition and to justify prosecution. Overall the internal party problem was a major factor for the use of terror to maintain control by Stalin because it allowed him to create a completely loyal communist party. Words 396 Social Instability In the main industrial cities, there was much disruption and dissent amongst the workers. The Five Year Plans had already caused a lot of distress to workers as Stalin was strict about targets not being met. Society had become unstable as a result of the Five Year Plans, mass urbanisation and violence in overcrowded, unsanitary cities. Mass urbanisation had brought a large workforce to the cities but this was followed by violence and social tension. Because of this there was a lot of hostility towards the communist party which was beginning to worry the government. M. Lewin describes this as a â€Å"quicksand society†[ix] which describes just how unstable the attitudes were towards the leadership. Stalin, it can be argued, resorted to the purges to prevent criticism of the leadership. The totalitarian viewpoint would be that Stalin used the purges to control the general population which I agree with, however the revisionist viewpoint would be that the centre used the purges to try and gain control of the chaos but it spiralled out of control and created a momentum of its own. I believe that the social instability within the main cities from mass urbanisation and the dissent that the Five Year Plans created contributed to the continuation of the purges as the leadership and Stalin needed to find a way to control the chaos. However I do not believe that this was the work of Stalin’s paranoia but Stalin doing what he believed as necessary to keep order. The NKVD There are those that would argue that the NKVD operated on their own during the purges to maintain a purpose and to strengthen their own position. It is believed that the intensity of the purges was due to the NKVD wanting to establish itself as one of the most powerful institutions in Russian society. By continuing the purges they convinced Stalin that he still had enemies that needed to be purged. This allowed it to continue its work and gave them a purpose. Revisionist historians would argue that the NKVD was full of internal divisions and many units acted on their own initiative whereas totalitarian historians argue that the NKVD acted through the orders from the government[x]. The murder of Sergei Kirov undoubtedly initiated the Great Purges, but it is debated who was actually responsible. Words 387 There are those who believe that it was the NKVD under the order of Stalin, J. Lewis and P. Whitehead argue that â€Å"It has been irrefutably proved that the murder of Kirov was organised through Stalin through Yagoda and the NKVD†,[xi] however Russian Scholar and politician A. Lakoviev states that â€Å"L. V Nikolayev planned and perpetrated the murder alone†[xii]. By looking at it in this respect it shows that Stalin may not have been directly responsible for the purges. But without the murder of Kirov the purges might not have happened as Stalin would have found it difficult to justify his actions. I believe that some parts of the NKVD acted on their own, continuing the purges for their own gain. As historians Corin and Fiehn say â€Å"Some units, especially in areas outside of Moscow, operated on their own fiefdoms†[xiii], I believe the NKVD did act more like a mafia outside of Moscow using the purges to their own advantage. Progress of Communism There are those that have stated that the purges were not of Stalin’s doing but of the communist system itself and that the purges were necessary for the evolution of communism. Many historians believe that the purges were a result of the communist system itself and that it was just the historical progression needed to keep communism going and to make sure it did not revert to the old regime. Conquest is one of these historians that argue that the purges were at the core of the nature of the Bolshevik regime and were necessary to keep it in power[xiv]. However Deutscher argues that it was a creation by Stalin and for his own uses to further assert his own authority and Richard Sakwa agrees with Deutscher on this issue. However one thing is for certain is that the purges did stop the system from reverting to the old regimes under the Tsar and the provisional government. Historians have argued that the purges were also used by Stalin for a selective genocide of the Russian population to create a new Soviet race – ‘Homo Sovieticus’ that would create a new bright future for Russia. An example of this is the case of Engelshina Cheshkova, a seven year old girl whose parents were killed and exiled. Yet, as a woman, she cried when Stalin died, upset as her daughter would not be able to see Stalin[xv]. By using the terror and purges Stalin hoped to make a race of people entirely devoted to him even if he had killed people close to them. Words 428 This was of Stalin’s own doing and he believed that with the right loyal population, Russia could become a world super power for many decades. By looking at the purges in this way it is easy to see that if Stalin was using the purges for a selective genocide it was not due to his paranoia but his obsession with making Russia great. Overall the fact that the purges were a logical progression for communism is a key factor to the use of the purges under Stalin because it was essential to the system to help it survive and counter revolutionary attempts. Obsession and Paranoia Historian A. Nove asks â€Å"how can one avoid the conclusion that it was Stalin’s decision to purge the party and society of what he regarded as suspect and unstable elements†[xvi]. Stalin’s personality is the major factor that contributed to the purges; it is evident that he did make many of the decisions to kill people both within the party and outside of the party. In a photograph from the time of the purges Stalin is shown signing death warrants[xvii]. From this evidence it can be argued that Stalin was the instigator of the purges. There are those that would argue that Stalin’s decisions to purge certain aspects in society was, to some extent, justified, however I believe that his paranoia definitely pushed the purges far further than necessary. It can be argued that the murder of Kirov was the start of Stalin’s purges and allowed him to initiate the purges. During the Communist Party’s 17th Party congress Kirov was proven to be more popular than Stalin. However Kirov was quite conveniently assassinated, therefore removing one of Stalin’s main rivals. The murder of Kirov could not be traced directly back to Stalin but it is widely believed he had a hand in it because he was able to take full advantage of it. If Stalin was responsible, was it his paranoia that drove him to order Kirov’s assassination. Even though Kirov was proved to be more popular than Stalin and was secretly offered the position of General Secretary, he declined as he was still a devoted follower of Stalin. Olga Shatunovskaya who recalled the events stated â€Å"When Stalin found out [that some delegates ha approached Kirov to ask him to become General Secretary in Stalin’s place] he decided to remove him†[xviii]. If this was the reason why Stalin murdered Kirov then his paranoia is evident. By killing someone as devoted as Kirov, Stalin’s paranoia is shown as at this point Kirov did not pose a threat. Words 432 However Kirov’s murder did allow for Stalin to justify the Great Purges, which were initiated soon after his death, which could show Stalin’s obsession with power rather than paranoia. The death of Kirov and the wide belief that it was Stalin’s doing does not necessarily show Stalin’s paranoia but it does explain another way in which Stalin was responsible for the purges. Robert Conquest states that â€Å"The one fundamental drive that can be found throughout is the strengthening of his own position†[xix], and I agree as Stalin was trying to gain absolute power as is evident with Kirov’s murder. However Stalin’s need for control of the party may have been a mix of his paranoia and obsession with power. By purging the party he was able to remove any political opponents that he had, this would have been his obsession that drove him, however the extent that he took the purges to in regards to the party would definitely suggest that he was paranoid and saw enemies everywhere. Whilst gaining control of the party Stalin was able to make people fully aware that he had the power to take or give anything. It is believed that Stalin’s relationship with his wife is important with regard to the terror that commenced afterwards. It is believed that she took her own life after voicing her opinions on the party purges and collectivisation to Stalin, who then shouted abuse at her. Stalin was cruel to his wife, being cold and violent. Both these factors appear to indicate that Stalin’s wife committed suicide. Most historians agree that the suicide made Stalin more paranoid and less likely to trust others. Stalin’s daughter explains how things had changed catastrophically: â€Å"Something had snapped inside my father†[xx]. Robert Thurston proposes that Stalin’s wife’s death occurred at the same time, filling Stalin with hatred and a desire to project his guilt over her death onto others[xxi]. The purging of the party can be referred as a mixture of Stalin’s paranoia and his obsession with power as some of the purging that was carried out did seem logical but taken to the extreme. The purging of the party allowed for Stalin to remove any political rivals, such as Zinoviev and Kamenev who were part of the leading troika after Lenin died. However paranoia did affect Stalin’s decisions as he purged over a million members of the party. Paranoia also played a part in the purging of Bukharin. Words 412 When Bukharin was given his death sentence he wrote a note to Stalin saying â€Å"Koba, why do you need me to die? †[xxii], by using Stalin’s revolutionary name it shows just how close Bukharin and Stalin used to be. It is clear that Bukharin and Stalin were close and by condemning Bukharin, Stalin shows clearly how paranoid he had become. Not satisfied with the cleansing of his own party, Stalin also found it necessary to purge the Red Army. Paranoid at the idea that the army was secretly planning a military coup, Stalin is believed to have used a double agent who worked with both Stalin and Hitler to take advantage of the paranoia raging in the Soviet Union. This led to the June 1937 purge of eight top Red Army commanders charged with conspiracy against their homeland with Germany. These commanders consisted of Marshall Tukhachevsky and various leaders of the Red Army. All were convicted and executed for their supposed crimes. Nearly 30,000 members of the Soviet armed forces were purged, about half of all the army’s officers. The purging of the Red Armies top commanders when war was close at hand truly shows just how paranoid he had become. However the purges can arguably be caused by Stalin’s obsession with gaining and maintaining power as an example of this is the Ryutin incident. Ryutin wrote a 200 page document criticising Stalin, both Ryutin and his followers were purged. Lynch believes that as Stalin grew older his paranoia grew and was why the purges grew more intense and less selective which he showed by saying â€Å"As he grew older Stalin became still more suspicious of those around him. [xxiii]. Lynch’s point is valid because as Stalin grew older fewer and fewer people were exempt from the purges. Even right up to his death Stalin was organising a purge for doctors. Overall Stalin’s paranoia was certainly a major factor towards the use of terror and purges to control the state Words 330 Conclusion As more information on Russian history is being discovered, it is now more w idely believed that Stalin himself was the main reason for the creation and continuation of the purges however it is necessary to accept that he was not the only reason. His paranoia may have influenced his decisions in regards to the Purges, however it is difficult to know what was an action based on paranoia or an action that may have been necessary for his consolidation and continuation of power in Russia. There are those who would argue that Stalin was merely one man and could not have continued the purges to the extent that they got to. There were certainly people in Russia who believed the propaganda that that the Purges were necessary to make Russia great again, and to remove the enemies of the people. The economic problems facing Russia forced Stalin to consider extreme ways with dealing with it; these options were rejected by many of the population so the government needed to blame someone. So the Kulaks were purged. The Purges can be justified by the problems within the party as Stalin did have political opponents that opposed his absolute rule; because of this many of the old Bolsheviks were put on public trial and killed. There are those that would argue that the purges were caused by communism itself in the sense that it was necessary for the continuation and evolution of communism. Stalin may also have been attempting to make a race of Russians entirely devoted to him. I however believe that most of these factors do link back to Stalin in some way; although it may not necessarily be due to his paranoia rather his lust for power. It is obvious that his paranoia played a part in the creation of the purges but his obsession for power outweighed his paranoia; Robert Service states that â€Å"The Great Terror would not have taken place but for Stalin’s personality and ideas. †[xxiv] I agree partly with this statement as it was Stalin’s paranoia that created the purges but only to some extent, not fully.